ASHTORETH

prisoners to a composite goddess ' Ashtar-Chemosh. Indeed, her existence in S. Arabia is evidenced by the probably equivalent male god 'Athtar. In Abyssinia, she was called Astar; in Assyria and Babylonia, Ishtar (used also in the pi. ishtaraii to denote 'goddesses,' cf. ' Ashtaroih, Jg 2" lOS 1 S 7" 12"); in Syria. ' Athar, and in Phoenicia, ' Astart, whence the Hebrew 'Ashtoreth, with the vowels of bosheth ('shameful thing') substituted for the original. See Molech, Baal.

The character of this goddess, concerning which the OT makes no direct statement, is most clearly depicted in the Assyro-Babylonian literature. Here she appears as the goddess of fertility, productiveness, and love on the one hand, and of war, death, and decay on the other, a personification of the earth as it passes through the summer and winter seasons. To her the sixth month, Elul, the height of the summer, is sacred. In this month, through her powers, the ripening of vegetable hfe takes place, represented by Tammuz, whose coming is heralded by Ishtar's festival in Ab, the fifth month. From this period of the year, the crops and verdure gradually decay, and finally dis-appear in the winter. Thus, since Ishtar has failed to sustain the life which her powers had created, popular belief made her the cause of death and decay. She therefore became a destructive goddess, who visited with disease those who disobeyed her commands, and even a goddess of war (cf. 1 S 31'°). However, filled with remorse, because she had destroyed the vegetable life ( = Tammuz, the consort of her youth), she sets out to the lower world in search of healing waters to revive Tammuz. During this quest (winter) the propagation of all life ceases. Successful in her search, she brings forth the new verdure, and once more assumes the rflle of a merciful goddess, to whom all life is due.

At a later period, when all gods had obtained a fixed position to each other and the necessity of assigning an abode to them was felt, the gods were identified with the heavenly bodies. Thus Ishtar was given the planet Venus, whose appearance at certain seasons as morning-star and at other times as evening-star paralleled the growth and decay of nature. Hence, in accordance with one theological school of the Baby-lonians, which considered Sin (moon) the ruler of the luminaries of the night, Ishtar was also known as the 'daughter of Sin.' By others she was designated as 'daughter of Anu (lord of heaven),' and even as the 'sister of Shamash (sun),' since, as the evening-star Venus disappears in the west, and reappears in the east to be called the morning-star.

The cults of this goddess were extant at various localities of Babylonia and Assyria. At some of these, both phases of her character were worshipped, side by side, with equality; at others, more importance was attached to one of her aspects. Thus at Uruk (Erech) in her temple E-Anna ('house of heaven') she was both a goddess of fertiUty and a martial deity in whose service were Kizreti, Ukhati, and Kharimati, the priestesses of Ishtar. At Agade, Calah, and Babylon greater stress seems to have been laid upon the milder aspect, and it is doubtless with the worship of this side of Ishtar's nature that the religious prostitution mentioned by Greek writers was connected (Hdt. i. 199 ; Strab. XVI. i. 20; Ep. Jerem. *'"■; Luc. de Dea Syr. 6 f.). Among the Assyrians, three Ishtars, viz., Ishtar of Nineveh, Ishtar of Kidmuru (temple at Nineveh), and Ishtar of Arbela, were especially worshipped. This warrior-nation naturally dwelt upon the martial aspect of the deity almost to the exclusion of her milder side as a mother-goddess, and accorded to her a position next to Ashur, their national god. Indeed, Ishtar was even designated as his wife, and since he ruled over the Igigi (spirits of heaven), so she was said to be 'mighty over the Anunnaki' (spirits of the earth).

Thus Ishtar is the goddess whom Ashur-nazir-pal

ASIEL

(B.C. 1800) aptly calls 'queen of the gods, into whose hands are delivered the commands of the great gods, lady of Nineveh, daughter of Sin, sister of Shamash, who rules all kingdoms, who determines decrees, the goddess of the universe, lady of heaven and earth, who hears petitions, heeds sighs; the merciful goddess who loves justice.' Equally does Esarhaddon's claim, that it was 'Ishtar, the lady of onslaught and battle,' who stood at his side and broke his enemies' bows, apply to this deity— a goddess, to whom the penitent in the anguish of his soul prays —

'BesMes thee there is no guiding deity. I implore thee to look upon me and hear my aighs. Proclaim peace, and may thy soul be appeased. How long, O my Lady, till thy countenance be turned

towards me. Like doves, I lament, I satiate myself with sighs.'

N. KOENIG.

ASHUBBANIPAL. — Son and successor of Esarhaddon on the throne of Assyria, b.c. 668-626. He is usually identified with Asnappar, Ezr. 4'°. He Included Manasseh of Judah among his tributaries, and kept an Assyrian garrison at Gezer. See Assyria, Osnappak.

C. H. W. Johns.

ASHUBITES. — One of the tribes over whom Ish-bosheth ruled (2 S 2'). The name is clearly corrupt, for neither the Assyrians (,Asshur) nor the Arabian tribe AsshuTim (Gn 25') can be intended. The Pesh. and Vulg. read 'the Geshurites,' whose territory bordered on that of Gilead (Jos 12* 13"), and who might there-fore be suitably included here. It has been urged, however, against this view, that Geshur was an inde-pendent kingdom at this time (cf. 2 S 3= 13"), so that Ishbosheth could not have exercised control over it. We should probably read hO-AshSri 'the Asherites,' i.e. the tribe of Asher (cf. Jg l'^).

ASHVATH.— An Asherite (1 Ch 7=').

ASIA. — In the NT this word invariably means the Roman province Asia, which embraced roughly the western third of the peninsula which we call Asia Minor. It was bounded on the N.E. by the province of Bithynia, on the E. by the province of Galatia, on the S. by the province of Lyoia, and had been ceded to the Romans by the will of the Pergamenian king Attains ni. in B.C. 133. The following ethnic districts were in this province — Mysia, Lydia, Western Phrygia, and Caria. The province was the richest, and, with the one excep-tion of Africa, its equal, the most important in the Roman Empire. It was governed by a proconsul of the higher grade, with three Jeffaii under him. Ephesus, Pergamum, and Smyrna were its principal cities. St. Paul's preach-ing in Ephesus was the most powerful cause of the spread of the gospel in this province, and the Epistle 'to the Ephesians' is probably a circular letter to all the churches in it. Seven are enumerated in Rev 1-3, which is post-Pauline. A. Soutee.

ASIARCH.— The form of the word is parallel with Lyciarch, Bithyniarch, etc., but the signification is by no means certain. The title of Asiarch could be held in conjunction with any civil office, and with the high priesthood of a particular city, but the high priest of Asia and the Asiarch were probably not identical; for there was only one high priest of Asia at a time, but there were a number of Asiarchs, as Ac 19'' shows, even in one city. The honour lasted one year, but re-election was possible. It was held in connexion with the Koinon (Council) of the province, the main duty of which was to regulate the worship of Rome and of the Emperor; and the Asiarchs were probably the deputies to the Council elected by the towns. A. Souter.

ASIBIAS (1 Es 9W).— One of the sons of Phoros or Parosh who agreed to put away his 'strange' wife; answering to Malchijah (2) in Ezr 10^.

ASIEL. — 1, Grandfather of Jehu a Simeonlte ' prince' (1 Ch 43S). 2. One of five writers employed by Ezra

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