even
in
the
oldest
legislation
(BC
23*
'
for
a
gift
blindeth
them
that
have
sight').
Against
those
who
would
defeat
the
ends
of
justice
by
perjury
and
false
witness,
the
law
is
rightly
severe
(D
IQi'").
Tale-bearing
(H
19"),
and
the
spreading
of
a
report
known
to
be
false
(BC
23'),
are
condemned,
while
in
the
more
heinous
case
of
a
man
slandering
his
newly-wedded
wife,
the
elders
of
the
city
are
to
amerce
him
in
an
hundred
shekels
(D
22is-2i).
6.
Property
had
also
to
be
protected
against
theft
(BC
20")
and
burglary
(22^),
with
which
may
be
classed
the
crime
of
removing
the
boundary-stones
of
a
neighbour's
property
to
increase
one's
own
(D
19"),
and
the
use
of
false
weights
and
measures
(D
2S"<'',
H
19™).
The
earliest
code
likewise
deals
with
trespass
(EC
22=),
and
arson
or
wilful
fire-raising
(ib.
V.'),
for
which
the
penalty
in
either
case
was
restitution.
i.
C.
Crimes
against
the
Individual.
—
BC
21'5-!»
deals
with
various
forms
of
assault,
a
crime
to
which
the
pre-Mosaic
jus
talionis
(see
below)
was
specially
applicable.
Kidnapping
a
freeman
was
a
criminal
offence
involving
the
death
penalty
(BC
2iw,
D
24").
Murder
naturally
has
a
place
in
the
penal
legislation
of
all
the
codes
from
BC
20'=
onwards.
The
legislators,
as
is
well
known,
were
careful
to
distinguish
between
murder
deliberately
planned
and
executed
(BC
21",
D
19>"'
)
and
unpremeditated
homicide
or
manslaughter
(BC
21U,
D
19«»-,
and
esp.
P,
Nu
3S«).
The
former,
with
certain
exceptions
(BC
212°
22^),
entailed
capital
punishment
in
accordance
with
the
fundamental
principle
laid
down
in
Gn
9"
;
in
the
case
of
'
the
man-slayer'
special
provision
was
made
for
the
mitigation
of
the
ancient
right
of
blood
revenge
(see
Refuge
[Cities
of]).
8.
Punishments.
—
From
the
earliest
period
of
which
we
have
any
record
two
forms
of
punishment
prevailed
among
the
Hebrews
and
their
Semitic
kinsfolk,
viz.
retaliation
and
restitution.
Retaliation,
the
jus
talionis
of
Roman
law,
received
its
classical
expression
in
the
oldest
Hebrew
code:
'thou
shalt
give
life
for
life,
eye
for
eye,
tooth
tor
tooth,
hand
for
hand,
foot
for
foot,
burning
for
burning,
wound
for
wound,
stripe
for
stripe'
(BC
21231
).
xhe
talio,
as
has
already
been
mentioned,
was
specially
applicable
in
cases
of
injury
from
assault.
When
life
had
been
taken,
whether
intentionally
or
unintentionally,
the
right
of
enforcing
the
jus
talionis
lay
with
the
dead
man's
next
of
kin
(see
Kin
[Next
of]).
In
BC
restitution
varies
from
fivefold
tor
an
ox,
and
fourfold
for
a
sheep
that
has
been
stolen
and
thereafter
killed
or
sold,
to
twofold
it
the
animal
is
still
in
the
thief's
possession
(BC
22'-<),
and
finally
to
a
simple
equivalent
in
the
case
of
wilful
damage
to
a
neighbour's
property
(.ib.
v.s').
Compensation
by
a
money
payment
was
admitted
for
loss
of
time
through
bodily
injury
(BC
21"),
for
loss
of
property
(w.^^-^),
but
not,
in
Hebrew
law,
tor
loss
of
life,
except
In
the
cases
mentioned
BC
21'°.
The
payments
of
100
shekels
and
50
shekels
respectively
ordained
in
D
22"-
"
appear
to
the
modern
eye
as
fines,
but
fall
in
reality
under
the
head
of
compensation
paid
to
the
father
of
the
women
in
question.
9.
In
the
penal
code
of
the
Hebrews
there
is
a
com-parative
lack
of
what
may
be
termed
intermediate
penalties.
Imprisonment,
for
example,
has
no
place
in
the
Pentateuch
codes
as
an
authorized
form
of
punish-ment,
although
frequent
cases
occur
in
later
times
and
apparently
with
legal
sanction
(see
Ezr
7*).
The
use
of
the
stocks
also
was
known
to
the
Jewish
(Jer
202')
as
well
as
to
the
Roman
authorities
(Ac
162<).
Beating
with
rods
and
scourging
with
the
lash
were
also
practised.
The
former
seems
liltended
in
D
ZS"'-,
but
later
Jewish
practice
substituted
a
lash
of
three
thongs,
thirteen
strokes
of
which
were
administered
(cf.
2
Co
112«).
Many,
however,
would
Identify
the
punishment
of
this
passage
of
D
with
the
favourite
Egyptian
punishment
of
the
bastinado.
Uutilation,
apart
from
the
ialio,
appears
only
as
the
penalty
for
indecent
assault
(D
2S"').
10.
The
regular
form
of
capital
punishment
was
death
by
stoning,
which
is
prescribed
in
the
Pentateuch
as
the
penalty
for
eighteen
different
crimes,
including
Sabbath-breaking.
'For
only
one
crime
—
murder
—
is
it
the
penalty
in
all
the
codes.'
The
execution
of
the
criminal
took
place
outside
the
city
(H
24"),
and
according
to
D
17'
the
witnesses
in
the
case
cast
the
first
stone
(cf.
Jn
8').
In
certain
cases
the
dead
body
of
the
malefactor
was
impaled
upon
a
stake;
this,
it
can
hardly
be
doubted,
is
the
true
rendering
of
D
2122'-(AV
'hang
him
on
a
tree'),
and
of
the
same
expression
elsewhere.
Hanging
or
strangulation
is
mentioned
only
as
a
manner
of
suicide
(2
S
172^,
Mt
27').
Crucifixion,
it
need
hardly
be
said,
was
a
Roman,
not
a
Jewish,
insti-tution.
Beheading
appears
in
Mt
14'»||,
Ac
122,
Rev
20*.
11.
The
meaning
of
the
expression
frequently
found
in
P,
'to
be
cut
off
from
his
people,
from
Israel,'
etc.,
is
uncertain;
most
probably
it
denotes
a
form
of
excom-munication,
with
the
implication
that
the
offender
is
handed
over
to
the
judgment
of
God,
which
also
seems
to
be
Intended
by
the
banishment
of
Ezr
72«
(note
margin).
A
similar
division
of
opinion
exists
as
to
the
penalty
of
burning,
which
is
reserved
for
aggravated
cases
of
prostitution
(H
21')
and
incest
(20").
Here
the
probability
seems
in
favour
of
the
guilty
parties
being
burned
alive
(cf.
Gn
382*),
although
many
scholars
hold
that
they
were
first
stoned
to
death.
The
most
extreme
form
of
punishment
known
to
the
codes,
in
that
a
whole
community
was
involved,
Is
that
of
total
destruction
under
the
ban
of
the
first
degree
(see
Ban)
prescribed
tor
the
crime
of
apostasy
(BC
222»,
more
fully
D
131S-").
A.
R.
S.
Kennedy.
ORHHSOK.—
The
word
tsia'
,
tr.
in
Is
1"
'crimson'
and
in
La
4*
'scarlet,'
is
usually
tr.
'worm'
(wh.
see),
exactly
as
the
Arab,
dudeh,
the
common
word
for
'
worm,'
is
to-day
also
used
in
Palestine
tor
the
imported
cochineal
insect.
The
Palestine
insect
is
the
female
Coccus
Uicis
of
the
same^Natural
Order
as
the
American
C.
cacti;
it
feeds
on
the
holm-oak.
E.
W.
G.
Mastekman.
CRISPING
PINS.—
Is
322
AV;
RV
satchel
(see
Bag).
CRISPTTS.
—
The
chief
ruler
of
the
Jewish
synagogue
at
Corinth
(Ac
18').
Convinced
by
the
reasonings
of
St.
Paul
that
Jesus
was
the
Messiah,
he
believed
with
all
his
house.
The
Apostle
mentions
him
(1
Co
1")
as
one
of
the
few
persons
whom
he
himself
had
baptized.
CRITICISM.
—
Biblical
criticism
is
divided
into
two
branches:
(1)
Lower
Criticism,
which
is
concerned
with
the
original
text
of
Scripture
—
the
Hebrew
of
the
OT
and
the
Greek
of
the
NT,
by
reference
to
(a)
the
external
evidence
of
MSS,
versions,
and
citations
in
ancient
literature,
and
ib)
the
intrinsic
evidence
of
the
inherent
probability
of
one
reading
as
compared
with
a
rival
reading,
judged
by
such
rules
as
that
preference
should
be
given
to
the
more
difficult
reading,
the
shorter
reading,
the
most
characteristic
reading,
and
the
reading
which
accounts
for
the
alternative
readings
(see
Text
or
the
NT);
(2)
Higher
Criticism,
which
is
concerned
with
the
authorship,
dates,
and
circumstances
of
origin,
doctrinal
character
and
tendency,
historicity,
and
other
such
questions
concerning
the
books
of
Scripture,
as
far
as
these
matters
can
be
determined
by
a
careful
examination
of
their
contents,
comparing
the
various
sections
of
each
one
with
another,
or
comparing
the
books
in
their
entirety
with
one
another,
and
bringing
all
possible
Ught
to
bear
upon
them
from
history,
literature,
antiquities,
monuments,
etc.
The
title
of
the
second
branch
of
criticism
is
often
mis-understood
in
popular
usage.
The
Lower
Criticism
being
little
heard
of
except
among
experts,
while
the
Higher
Criticism
is
often
mentioned
in
public,
the
true
eompanson
suggested
is
not
perceived,
and
the
latter
phrase
is
taken
to
indicate
a
certain
arrogance
on
the
part
of
advanced
critics,
and
contempt
for
the
older
scholarship.
Then
the
