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and the ' angels ' of the churches of Asia in Rev 2 and 3. If tliis doctrine really owed anything to the stimulus of Magianism, it is in line with other features of later Jewish angelology. It is only the naming and ranking of angels, and the symmetrical framing of correspond-ing powers of evil, that remind us of Parsi doctrine: the Jews always had both angels and demons, and all that is claimed is a possible encouragement from Parsi theology, which developed what was latent already. A more important debt of Judaism to Persian faith is alleged to be found in the doctrine of the Future Life. From the beginning Zoroastrianism (see below) had included immortality and the resurrection of the body as integral parts of its creed. It is therefore at least a remarkable coincidence that the Jews did not arrive at these doctrines till the period immediately following their contact with the Persians, who under Cyrus had been their deliverers from Babylonian tyranny. But though the coincidence has drawn some even to adopt the linguistically impossible notion that the very name of the Pharisees was due to their 'Parsi' leanings, a coincidence it remains for the most part. The two peoples came to the great idea by different roads. The Persians apparently developed it partly from the analogy of Nature, and partly from the instinctive craving for a theodicy. The Jews conceived the hope through the ever-increasing sense of communion with a present God, through which their most spiritual men realized the impossibility of death's severing God from His people. But we may well assume that the growth of this confident belief was hastened by the knowledge that the doctrine was already held by another nation. How well the religion of the Magi deserved the double honour thus assigned to it — that of stimulating the growth of the greatest of truths within Israel, and that of offering the first homage of the Gentile world to the infant Redeemer — may be seen best by giving in a few words a description of the faith in general.

Its pre-historic basis was a relatively pure Nature- worship, followed by the coniinon ancestors of the Aryans in India and Persia, and still visible to us in the numerous elements which appear in both Veda and Avesta — the most sacred books of India and Iran respectively. To Iranian tribes holding this faith came in the 7th cent. B.C., or earlier, the prophet Zarathushtra, called by the Greeks Zoroaster. He endeavoured to supersede Nature-worship by the preach-ing of a highly abstract monotheism. The 'Wise Lord,' Ahura Mazda (later Onnazd), reigned alone without e^ual or second; but Zoroaster surrounded Him with peisonified attributes, six in number, called Arnesha Spenta (AynaAas-pands), 'Immortal Holy Ones,' who were the archangels of the heavenly court. The problem of Evil he solved by positing _ a ' Hurtful Spint,' Angra Mainyu (later Ahriman), with his retinue of inferior demons (see Asmo-D^ns), who is a power without beginning, like Ormazd, creator of all things evil, and perpetual enemy of God and of

food men. In the end, however, he is to be destroyed with is followers, and Good is to triumph for ever. Truth and Industry, especially in agriculture, are the practical virtues by which the righteous advance the kingdom of Ahura Mazda. The eschatolo^ is striking and lofty in its con-ception, and the doctnne of God singularly pure. Un-happily, with the prophet's death the old polytheism re-turned, under the guise of angel-worship, and the Magi were ere long enslaving the religion to a dull and mechanical ritual. Many of these degenerate elements have, however, been largely subordinated in modem Parsism. The small community, nxostly concentrated round Bombay, which to-day maintains this ancient faith, may assuredly challenge any non-Christian religion in the world to match either its creed or its works. James Hope Moulton.

MAGIC, DIVINATION, AND SORCERY.— Magic,

divination, sorcery, and witchcraft are all connected with belief in superhuman powers, and are methods whereby men endeavour to obtain from these powers knowledge of the future, or assistance in the affairs of Ufe. Behef in magic and divination is most preva-lent in the lower stages of civihzation and reUgion. The arts of the magician and the diviner were founded

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upon the same logical processes as have issued in the development of modern science; but the limits within which deduction would be vaUd were disregarded, and the data were frequently imperfect. Accidental coinci-dence was often confused with causal sequence. (See Hastings' DS, art. ' Divination'). Magic and divination were derived from attempts at reasoning which were very often erroneous; but from such crude beginnings science has slowly grown.

In their beginning these arts were associated with reUgion; and diviners and magicians were those thought to be most intimately connected with the Deity, and, owing to their superior knowledge of Him and His ways, best able to learn His secrets or secure His aid. Among the Arabs the priest was originally also the soothsayer; the Heb. kSMn, 'priest,' is cognate with the Arab, kahin, 'soothsayer'; the primitive priest had charge of the shrine of the god, and both offered sacri-fices and gave responses. In this manner classes of professional diviners and magicians arose, as in Egypt (Gn 418, Ex 7"), in Babylon (Dn 2^), in connexion with Baal (1 K 18"), and even among the Israelites in the lower rank of professed prophets (Mic 3'-"; see G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets, Introd.). Such officials were set apart for their office by some rite specially connecting them with the god, as the eating of a particular food, or the wearing of a sacred dress (cf. 2 K 1*, Zee 13*). The animism, in which magical arts had their root, soon passed beyond the simple behef that Nature was peopled with spirits, and began to distinguish between good and evil spirits. When that distinction had been attained, the art of the magician and diviner also became subject to moral dis-tinctions, according to the character of the spirit whose aid was sought and the purpose in view. This diversity in the moral characteristics of magic and divination is illustrated in the history of Israel; for divination is akin to some of the institutions sanctioned by God, such as the Urim and Thummim (Ex 283", Lv 88), and it includes, at the other extreme, such necromancy as that of the witch of Endor. Among Semitic races and by the Egyptians, magic and divination were associated with the worship of various gods and the behef in the existence of a vast number of demons. With the gradual rise of reUgion in Israel under the teaching of God, early modes of prying into the future, and magical methods of seeking superhuman help, were slowly abandoned, and, as revelation became clearer, they were forbidden. The teaching of the inspired prophets of Jehovah was very different from that of the merely professional prophets and from the reUgion of the common people. Throughout pre-exiUc times there was a struggle in Israel between the pure worship of Jehovah alone as inculcated by the great prophets, and the worship of 'other gods,' such as the local Canaanitish BaaUm and idols in the homes of the people. In process of time magic and divination became closely linked with these iUicit cults, and were consequently denounced by the great prophets; but at the same time the desire of the human heart to learn the future and to secure Divine help (which Ues at the root of magic and divination) was met by God, purified, elevated, and satisfied by the revelation of His wiU through the prophets. God's revelation was suited to the stage of spiritual development to which the people had attained, hence His prophets sometimes employed methods similar to those of divination; consequently some forms of divination are aUowed to pass without censure in many passages of the Bible, but these Were graduaUy put aside as the people were educated to a more spiritual conception of religion. On the other hand, as men sought to prognosticate the future by ilUcit commerce with false gods and spirits, magic and divination became generaUy degraded and divorced from all that is right and good. This explains the increasing severity with which magic and divina-