MAGIC, DIVINATION, AND SORCERY

the Babylonians (Is H^). It also appeals as a method of the lower rank of prophets in Israel (Mic 3^-ii, Ezk 13^- ' 2228). Prophets are named in connexion with diviners (qosemim^ Jer 27^ 298). The word is used in relation to necromancy and the consultation of teraphim (1 S IS^^ 28», 2 K 17", Zee 1(f). The practice is forbidden in Dt 18i».

(iii.) By rhahdomancy. This is alluded to in Hos 4*^. Probably pieces of stick were used for drawing lots, as in the case of divination by arrows.

(6) Dreams and visions. — Numerous instances occur In which Divine Intimations were communicated to men by dreams and visions. (1) In so far as these were spontaneous and unsought, they do not properly belong to the domain of divination. Such occur in Gn 20' 2812 3110. 24 37S_ 1 K 3b_ jit l^" 2i2 27". Dreams are spoken of as a legitimate channel tor God's communica-tions to His prophets and others (Nu 12=, 1 S 28», Job 33", Jl 228). — (2) But the belief in Divine warnings through dreams came very near to divination when Interpreters were sought to make clear their meaning, as in Egypt (Gn 40'*- 41i Pharaoh calls the chartummlm — a word used only in the sense of scribes possessed of occult knowledge), among the Midianites (Jg 7"), and In Babylon (Dn 2^). — (3) Dreams were sought by the prophets of a lower order in Israel, and it is known that among the Egyptians and other ancient nations special means, such as fasting or drugs, were used to induce them, from the belief that they were Divine communica-tions. In Egypt it was a common practice tor wor-shippers to sleep within the precincts of the temples in order to obtain intimations by dreams, and some devotees lived by the rewards received by them for recounting the dreams which had come to them in the temple. References to misleading divination by dreams occur in Dt 13i-' (prophets were to be judged by the character of their teaching and to be put to death if they favoured idolatry), Jer 2325" 27» 29*, Zee 102.

Vision (chSiBn, with its cognate words) has a similarly wide application, extending from the God-given experi-ences of the higher prophets to the misleading predictions of false prophets. Instances of its highest signiScation occur in Is 1' 2', Am 1", Mic 1'. The word ia used respecting the deception practised by lower prophets, as in Nu 24'- ", where reference is apparently made to the seei receiving the intimation in a trance, but the interpretation is not quite certain (see Gray, Numbers, p. 361); other physical phenomena appear in connexion with prophesying (1 S IQi" 19"-"; see G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets, i. p. 21). The word also appears in connexion with false prophets (Is 28' 30i°, La 2", Ezk 122« 13»- i«- a 2129 2228, zec 10^).

(c) Observation of omens (augliry). — nOchash, tr. 'to divine' or 'to use enchantments,' the agent being called ' an enchanter ' (Dt 18'"), means ' to learn by means of omens.' Very probably the expression is derived from nachdsh, 'a serpent,' with the underlying idea that the Intimation was obtained by the worshipper through the assistance of the serpent-god; another, but less likely, derivation is from the 'hissing' or 'whispering' tones of the diviner. The word is very frequently used with a bad sense attaching to it.

Words were sometimes taken as omens of the future (1 K 20" RVm 'took it as an omen,' also 1 S 14i»). The movements of animals also constituted omens. It was considered by the Arabs that some animals, under the influence of a higher power, could see what was invisible to men, and consequently their action became an omen. It would be quite in accordance with this that Balaam's ass should see what was hidden from her master (Nu 222'); ^ similar belief in the sig-nificance of the movements of animals is shown in the lords of the Philistines watching the way the kine took with the ark of God (1 S 612).

The methods of divination by omens are of ten unexpressed, as Gn 302', Ly iga, 2 K 17" 218, 2 Ch 33«. The following practices in divination by omens appear: — (i.) By hydro-mancy (Gn 44'). In Egypt it was common to attempt to

568

MAGIC, DIVINATION, AND SORCERY

divine the future by the appearance of the liquid in a goblet or dish. — (ii.) By the observation of the douda. The clouds were carefully studied by diviners among the Chaldseans, and the word ' onenseems to indicate this practice as existing among the Hebrews and Philistines (Is 2^; see Cheyne, Isaiah, vol. i. p. 17). Driver, however, leaves the kind of divination undecided, and suggests a derivation from an Arabic root meaning 'to murmur' or 'whisper,' the ref-erence being to the mutterings of the soothsayer (J)eut. p. 224). Perhaps it meant the bringing of clouds by magic arts, as in Jer I422 (see Delitzsch on Is 28). It has also been suggested that the word is a denominative from ' ayin{' eye' ) , and means ' to glance with an evil eye.' This form of auguiy was forbidden (Lv 19*8, Dt IS"), and those practising it were denounced (Mic 512, Jer 27^). Manasseh fostered it (2 K 218, 2 Ch 33»).— (iii.) By astrology. The stars were very early believed to have an influence on the fortunes of men (Jg 52», Job 38^8) . Professional astrologers were prominent among the Assyrians and Babylonians, among whom a standard astrological work was constructed as early as the 16th cent. B.C. (Cheyne, Isaiah, vol. i. p. 310). Babylonian astrology, with its announcement of coming events and notification of favourable and unpropitious days (such as are now extant on Babylonian clay tablets), is mentioned in Is 47i8; but astrology does not seem to have been practised by Israel in early times; Jeremiah speaks of it as 'the way of the nations,' and warns the people against it. In later times astrology was regarded by the Jews in a less unfavourable hgnt: e.g. Dn 2*8, where Daniel is made chief of ten wise men who included astrologers (cf. Mt 2, where the wise men, who appear to have been astrologers, were met by God in their darkness, and led to the infant Saviour (Edersheim, LT i. 202]). — (iv.) By inspecting victims. Forecasting the future from the appear-ance of the livers of victims is mentioned in Ezk 2121. This was common in Babylon (Diod. Sic. ii. 29) and also among the Romans (Cic. de Divin. ii. 12). It does not appear to have been in use among the Israelites; the sacrifices of Balaam (Nu 23i- ") were not for this purpose, but to pro-pitiate the deity consulted.

Connected with the use of omens is the appointment of 'signs' by prophets to assist their consultors in believing what they predicted. Signs were given by God and His prophets as well as by false prophets; these were exhibitions of Divine power in smaller matters by which men might be enabled to trust God in things of greater moment (Jg 688); or they were Instances of truth in small predictions, to awaken con-fidence in greater promises or threatenlngs (Ex 48 10', Is 7") ; or they were simply the attachment of particular meaning to ordinary facts to remind men of God's promises or threats (Gn 9" 17", Is 8I8, Ezk 12", Zec 38). In the time of Christ such signs were de-manded by the Jews (Mt 12" I61, Lk 11", Jn 4", 1 Co 122). Cf. art. Sign.

(d) Necromancy and familiar spirits. — Of these there were two kinds: — (1) A spirit (primarily a subterranean spirit, 'Bb) was conceived as dwelling in a human being (Lv 20"), most commonly in a woman. Those thus possessed were sometimes called 'Sboth (Is 8"), or the woman was denominated ba'alath'Bb (1 S 28'). Another explanation (H. P. Smith, Samuel, p. 239) makes the '36 a sort of idol, on the ground that Manasseh ' made ' an '56 (2 K 218) and that it is classed with teraphim (2 K 232<). These necromancers professed to have the power of calling up the dead (1 S 28", Is 8"). Of their method of procedure we know nothing. In the interview with the witch of Endor, it appears that Saul was told by the witch what she saw, but the king himself entered into the conversation. Necromancers seem to have deceived their inquirers by speaking in a thin weak voice to make it appear that it was the spirit speaking through them (Is 8i» 29'). The LXX generally represents them as ventriloquists, engaslrimythoi (cf. goWes, 2 Ti 3"). A similar belief that a spirit might dwell in a human being and give responses appears in Ac le"; this opinion was common in heathendom. The Jews had similar views respecting the indwelling of demons in cases of demo-niacal possession.

(2) Other diviners represented themselves as having fellowship with a spirit from whom they Add receive intimations. These spirits were called yidSe'Bnim, the