of
iron
or
wood.
In
NT
times
the
Passover
lamb
had
always
to
be
loasted
in
an
oven,
suspended
by
a
spit
of
pomegranate
laid
across
the
mouth.
Eggs
(Job
6«,
Lk
1112),
yf^
read
in
the
Mishna,
might
be
cooked
by
being
boiled
in
the
shell,
or
broken
and
fried,
or
mixed
with
oil
and
fried
in
a
saucepan.
As
regards
the
important
group
of
the
cereals,
wheat
and
barley
ears
were
roasted
on
an
iron
plate
or
in
a
pan,
producing
the
'parched
com'
(Amer.
RV
'parched
grain')
of
OT.
A
porridge
of
coarse
wheat
or
barley
meal
has
also
been
referred
to
under
Food,
§
2.
The
seeds
of
the
leguminous
plants
were
mostly
boiled
(Gn
2629;
of.
2
K
4»8).
A
'good
savour'
(1
Es
I")
was
imparted
to
the
stew
by
the
addition
of
other
vegetables
of
a
more
pungent
character,
such
as
onions.
In
short,
it
may
be
affirmed
that
the
Hebrew
housewives
were
in
no
way
behind
their
modern
kinsfolk
of
the
desert,
of
whom
Doughty
testifies
that
'
the
Arab
house-wives
make
savoury
messes
of
any
grain,
seething
it
and
putting
thereto
only
a
little
salt
and
samn
[clarified
butter].'
The
direction
in
which
Hebrew,
like
most
Eastern,
cooking
diverged
most
widely
from
that
of
our
northern
climate
was
in
the
more
extensive
use
of
olive
oil,
which
served
many
of
the
purposes
of
butter
and
fat
among
ourselves.
Not
only
was
oil
mixed
with
vegetables,
but
it
was
largely
used
in
cooking
fish
and
eggs
(as
we
have
just
seen),
and
in
the
finer
sorts
of
baking.
The
poor
widow
of
Zarephath's
'
little
oil
'
was
not
intended
for
her
lamps,
but
to
bake
her
'
handful
of
meal
'
withal
(1
K
17").
The
flour
was
first
mixed
with
oil,
then
shaped
into
cakes
and
afterwards
baked
in
the
oven
(Lv
20;
or
a
species
of
thin
flat
cake
might
first
be
baked
in
the
usual
way
and
then
smeared
with
oil.
The
latter
are
the
'wafers
anointed
with
oil'
of
Ex
29^
etc.
Honey
and
oil
were
also
used
together
in
the
baking
of
sweet
cakes
(Ezk
16''-
").
In
this
connexion
it
is
interesting
to
note
that
while
Ex
16"
compares
the
taste
of
manna
to
that
of
'wafers
made
with
honey,'
the
parallel
passage,
Nu
11',
compares
it
to
'the
taste
of
cakes
baked
with
oil'
(RVm).
2.
The
two
chief
meals.
—
Among
the
Hebrews,
as
among
their
contemporaries
in
classical
lands,
it
was
usual
to
have
but
two
meals,
properly
so
called,
in
the
day.
Before
beginning
the
work
of
the
day
the
farmer
in
the
country
and
the
artizan
in
the
city
might
'
break
their
fast
'
(Jn
21i2-
«
RV)
by
eating
a
morsel
of
bread
—
the
'
morning
morsel
'
as
it
is
called
in
the
Talmud
—
with
some
simple
relish,
such
as
a
few
olives;
but
this
was
in
no
sense
a
meal.
Indeed,
to
'eat
[a
full
meal]
in
the
morning
'
was
a
matter
for
grave
reproach
(Ec
1
0")
.
The
first
meal-time
(Ru
2"
RV),
speaking
generally,
was
at
an
hour
when
the
climate
demanded
a
rest
from
strenuous
exertion,
namely,
about
noon;
the
second
and
more
important
meal
of
the
two
was
taken
a
little
before
or
after
sunset,
when
the
labourers
had
'come
in
from
the
field
'
(Lk
17')
.
This
was
the
'
supper
time
'
of
141V.
The
former,
the
ariston
of
the
Greeks
—
in
EV
rendered
dinner,
Mt
22',
also
Lk
11"
but
RVm
here
breakfast—
was
in
most
cases
a
very
simple
meal.
'A
servant
plowing
or
keeping
sheep
'
or
harvesting
would
make
his
midday
meal
of
bread
soaked
in
light
wine
with
a
handful
of
parched
corn
(Ru
2"),
or
of
'pottage
and
bread
broken
into
a
bowl'
(Bel
"),
or
of
bread
and
boiled
fish
(Jn
21i*).
All
the
evidence,
including
that
of
Josephus,
goes
to
show
that
the
second
or
evening
meal
was
the
principal
meal
of
the
day.
3.
Position
at
meals.
—
Within
the
period
covered
by
OT
the
posture
of
the
Hebrews
at
meals,
in
so
far
as
the
men
were
concerned,
was
changed
from
sitting
to
reclining.
In
the
earliest
period
of
all,
the
Hebrews
took
their
meals
sitting,
or
more
probably,
squatting
on
the
ground
(Gn
37^'
etc.),
like
the
Bedouin
and
fellahin
of
the
present
day,
among
whom
squatting
'with
both
knees
downwards,
and
vrith
the
legs
gathered
tailor-
fashion,
alone
is
the
approved
fashion
when
at
table'
{PEFSt,
1905,
124).
The
food
was
served
in
a
large
wooden
bowl
placed
upon
a
mat
of
leather
or
plaited
grass,
round
wliich
the
company
gathered.
The
first
advance
on
this
primitive
practice
was
to
present
the
food
on
a
wooden
or
other
tray,
set
upon
a
low
stand
raised
but
a
few
inches
from
the
ground.
The
next
step
was
the
introduction
of
seats,
which
would
naturally
follow
upon
the
change
from
nomadic
to
agricultural
life
after
the
conquest
of
Canaan.
/Saul
and
his
mess-mates
sat
upon
'seats'
(1
S
20"),
the
precise
form
of
which
is
not
specified,
as
did
Solomon
and
the
high
oflicials
of
his
court
(1
K
10«,
where
the
queen
of
Sheba
admires
the
'sitting,'
i.e.
the
seated
company
of
his
servants;
cf.
13«»
etc.).|
With
the
growth
of
wealth
and
luxury
under
the
monarchy,
the
Syrian
custom
of
reclining
at
meals
gradually
gained
ground.
In
Amos'
time
it
was
still
looked
upon
as
an
innovation
peculiar
to
the
wealthy
nobles
(Am
Si^
6*).
Two
centuries
later,
Ezekiel
is
familiar
with
'a
stately
bed'
or
couch
(as
Est
l"
RV)
with
'a
table
prepared
before
it'
(Ezk
23").
In
the
post-exilic
period
the
custom
must
have
taken
firm
root,
tor
by
the
end
of
the
3rd
cent.
b.c.
it
was
probably
universal
save
among
the
very
poor
(Jth
12i5,
To
2i).
In
NT,
accordingly,
whenever
'sitting
at
meat'
is
men-tioned,
we
are
to
understand
'reclining,'
as
the
margin
of
RV
everywhere
reminds
us.
At
table,
that
is
to
say,
the
men
—
for
women
and
children
still
sal
—
reclined
on
couches
with
wooden
frames,
upholstered
with
mat-tresses
and
provided
with
cushions,
on
which
they
leaned
the
left
elbow
(see
Sir
iV),
using
only
the
right
hand
to
eat
vrith
(see
§
5
below).
4.
From
the
Mishna
we
learn
that
in
NT
times
the
tables
were
chiefly
of
wood,
and
furnished
with
three
or
four
feet.
They
were
lower
and
smaller
than
with
us.
The
couches
or
divans
were
as
a
rule
capable
of
accom-modating
several
people.
In
the
houses
of
the
great
each
guest
at
a
banquet
might
have
a
couch
and
table
for
himself.
The
Greek
custom
was
to
assign
two,
the
Roman
three,
guests
to
each
couch.
As
each
guest
reclined
on
his
left
elbow,
the
person
next
on
his
right
on
the
same
couch
could
be
said
to
'
recline
in
the
bosom
'
of
his
fellow-guest.
Such
were
the
relative
positions
of
John
and
Jesus
at
the
Last
Supper
(Jn
132»
RV).
5.
Procedure
at
meals,
etc.
In
our
Lord's
day,
as
we
learn
from
the
Gospels,
great
importance_
was
attached
by
the
Jewish
authorities
to
the
'washing
of
hands'
before
meals.
This
consisted
of
pouring
water
(which
had
been
kept
from
possible
defilement
in
large
closed
jars,
the
'
waterpots
of
stone
'
of
Jn
2")
over
the
hands
and
allowing
it
to
run
to
the
wrist
(cf.
Mk
T
RVm
and
commentaries).
This
washing
over,
the
food
was
brought
in
by
the
women
of
the
household
(Mk
1",
Lk
10");
in
wealthy
famiUes
by
male
slaves,
the
'ministers'
of
1
K
10*,
'waiters'
of
Jth
13i,
'servants'
of
Jn
2*-
».
At
this
stage
grace
was
said.
The
date
of
the
introduction
of
this
custom
is
unknown,
for
1
S
Qi'
is
not
a
case
in
point.
In
NT
the
blessing
before
a
meal
has
the
repeated
sanction
of
our
Lord's
example
(Mt
IS^*
262«
etc.;
cf.
Ac
27»
for
Paul).
As
to
what
may
be
termed,
with
the
Mishna,
'the
vessels
for
the
service'
of
the
table,
these
naturally
varied
with
the
social
position
of
the
household,
and
more
or
less
with
the
progress
of
the
centuries.
In
early
times
earthenware
vessels
would
be
used,
for
which,
as
civilization
advanced,
bronze
would
be
sub-stituted,
and
even
in
special
cases,
silver
and
gold
(see
House,
§
9).
Bread,
we
know,
was
usually
served
in
shallow
wicker
baskets
(Ex
29'»).
The
main
part
of
the
meal
in
the
homes
of
the
people
will
have
been
served
in
one
or
more
large
bowls
or
basins,
of
earthen-ware
or
bronze,
according
to
circumstances.
Such
was
the
'dish'
into
which
our
Lord
dipped
the
'sop'
(Mt
26«',
Mk
IP").
A
shallower
dish
is
that
rendered
'charger'
in
Mt
148-
n,
and
'platter,'
Lk
11".
