ROOF

races of Italy, over most of which they were sovereign about the middle of the 3rd cent. b.c. The extension of Roman territory steadily continued until, in the time of Christ, it included, roughly, Europe (except the British Isles, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Russia), the whole of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and the north-west of Africa.

The Roman State was at first ruled by kings, but these gave place to two rulers, known later as consuls. Their powers were gradually circumscribed by the devolution of some of their duties on other magistrates. The period of steady accession of territory was coincident with a bitter struggle between the patrician and the , plebeian classes, both of which comprised free citizens. The contest between the orders lasted for about two denturies, and at the end of that period all the offices of State were equally open to both. This was not, however, the establishment of a real democracy, but the beginning of a struggle between the governing class and the mass of the people, which eventually brought the Republic to an end. The civil wars, which during the last century of its existence had almost destroyed it, had shown clearly that peace could be reached only under the rule of one man. The need of the time was satisfied by Augustus, who ruled as autocrat under constitutional forms: the appearance of a republic was retained, but the reality was gone, and the appearance itself gradually disappeared also. For the city of Rome the Empire was a time of luxury and idleness, but the provinces entered upon an era of progressive prosperity. The Emperor was responsible for the government of all provinces where an army was necessary (for instance, Syria), and governed these by paid deputies of his own. The older and more settled provinces were governed by officials appointed by the senate, but the Emperor had his financial interests attended to by procurators of his own even in these. Under the Empire the provinces were much more protected against the rapacity and cruelty of governors than in Republican times. The Emperors themselves stood for just as well as efiicient administration, and most of them gave a noble example by strenuous devotion to administrative business.

The resident Romans in any province consisted of (1) the officials connected with the Government, who were generally changed annually; (2) members of the great financial companies and lesser business men, whose interests kept them there; ■ (3) citizens of colonim (or military settlements), which were really parts of Rome itself set down in the provinces;- (4) soldiers of the garrison and their officers; (5) distinguished natives of the province, who, for services rendered to the Roman State, were individually gifted with the citizenship. Such must have been one of the ancestors of St. Paul. The honour was not conferred on all the inhabitants of the Empire till 212 A.D., and in NT times those who possessed it constituted the aristocracy ot the commu-nities in which they lived.

The Romans have left a great legacy to the world. As administrators, lawyers, soldiers, engineers, architects, and builders they have never been surpassed. In literature they depended mainly on the Greeks, as in sculpture, music, painting, and medicine. In the arts they never attained more than a respectable standard.

A. SOUTEK.

ROOF.— See House, § 6.

BOOm. — See House, § 2. For the 'upper room,' see ih. § 5, and for the now obsolete use of 'room* in the sense of place at table, as 'the chief room' (Lk 14'), the 'highest room' (v.« — RVin both cases 'chief seat'), or 'the uppermost room' (Mt 23», Mk 12*', RV 'chief place'), see Meals, § 6, A. R. S. Kennedy.

ROPE. — See Coed.

ROSE. — 1. chabazzeleth [Heb.], Ca 2' ['rose of Sharon'], Is 35'. All authorities are agreed that the tr. 'rose' adopted in the EV is incorrect. The chUbaszeleth

806

RUSH, RUSHES

appears to have been a bulbed flower. The RVm suggests 'autumn crocus' {Colchicum autumnale); on the other hand, many good authorities suggest the much more striking and sweeter-scented plant — the narcissus, which is a great favourite to-day in Palestine. Two species are known — N. Tazetta and N. serotinus. In Wis 28, Sir 24" 39" SO* we have mention of rhodon (Gr.). Whether this is, as Tristram maintains, the Rhododendron or the true rose is uncertain; both occur in parts of Palestine. E. W. G. Masteeman.

BOSH. — 1. A descendant of Benjamin (Gn 46^1 [text doubtful]). 2. In Ezk 38"- 39' the word /Josft is thought by many interpreters to refer to a people, otherwise un-known, but coupled with Meshech and Tubal (wh. see). It is possible, however, that the word meaning 'head' is used as a preposition 'over,' so that the phrase here applied to Gog (wh. see) simply means, 'prince over Meshech and Tubal '; ct. A Vm. J. F. McCuedy.

RUBY. — See Jewels and Peecious Stones.

RUDDER.— See Ships and Boats, 2 (2).

RUE (Lk 11'2). — The rue of Palestine is Ruta chalepensis, a variety of the officinal plant, which is cultivated as a medicine. E. W. G. Masteeman.

RUFUS. — 1. The brother of Alexander and son ot Simon of Cyrene (Mk 15^' only). 2. A Christian at Rome greeted by St. Paul (Ro 16") as 'the chosen in the Lord,' together with 'his mother and mine.' It has been conjectured that these two are the same person, that Simon's widow (?) had emigrated to Rome with her two sons, where they became people of eminence in the Church, and that this is the reason why the brothers are mentioned by St. Mark, who probably wrote in Rome.

A. J. Maclean.

BUG.— Jg 41s (RV). The tr. is doubtful.

RUHAJVIAH. — The second child (a daughter) of Goraer, Hosea's wife, was called Lo-ruhamah, 'unpitied' (Hos 1«- 8) . The name was given symbolically to indicate that God had ceased to pity Israel, and given her over to calamity. The return of God's mercy is indicated in Hos 2' 'Say ye unto your brethren, Ammi (i.e. 'my people,' in opposition to Lo-ammi, 'not my people'); and to your sisters, Buhamah' (i.e. ye are 'pitied'). A similar play on the word is found in Hos 2?' ' I will have mercy on "her that had not obtained mercy" (.Lo-ruhamah).' W. F. Boyd.

BUIiE. — See Aets and Ceafts, § 1.

BULER OF THE FEAST.— See Goveenoe, Meals, 6.

RULER OP THE SYNAGOGUE.— See Synagogue.

BULEBS OF THE CITY.— EV tr. in Ac 17«- « of the Gr. politarchm, which was the special local title of the magistrates of Thessalonica.

BUMAH. — The home of Pedaiah, the maternal grand-father of Jehoiakim (2 K 23'»). Josephus (Ant. x. v. 2) reads Abouma, no doubt a scribal error for Arouma, which may be the Arumah of Jg 9« near Shechem. There was another Rumah in Galilee (Jos BJ in. vii. 21), perhaps the modern Rumeh near Nazareth; and Pedaiah may have been a Galilsean. W. F. Boyd.

RUNNERS. — See Footman, Guaed.

RUSH, BUSHES.— 1. gsme\ Ex 2' (EV 'bulrushes'

RVm 'papyrus'), Job 8", Is 18^ (AV 'bulrushes,' RV 'papyrus') 35'. This was probably the once famous plant the papyrus (Cyperus papyrus, Arab, babir), which now flourishes in the Huleh swamps. The bulrush (Sdrpus marUimus) and other species may have been included in the Heb. name gSme'. 2. 'agmOn, Job 41= (AV 'hook,' RV 'rope,' RVm 'Heb. a rope of rushes') 41Z0 (AV 'caldron,' RV '[burning] rushes'), Is 9" 19" 58' (AV 'bulrush'). There are some twenty kinds ot rushes in Palestine, but it is impossible to fit the