WILD OLIVE

applied also to steppes in general, and translated ' wilder-ness,' 'desert,' and sometimes in pi. 'plains,' e.g. of Moab, of Jericho.

3. chorbah (from a root 'to be waste or desolate') is properly applied to cities or districts once Inhabited now lying waste, and is translated 'wastes,' 'deserts,' 'desolations,' though it is once used of the Wilderness of the Wanderings (Is 482').

4. tsiyyah meaning 'dry ground' ia twice translated 'wilderness' in AV: Job 30' (RV 'dry ground'), Ps 78" (RV 'desert,' RVm 'a dry land').

5. iohu has the special meaning of a 'wild desolate ex-panse.' In Job 6** it is the waste where the caravans perish. It is applied to the primeval chaos (Gn 1^) , also to the Wilder-ness of the Wanderings (Dt32"' 'waste howling wilderness').

6. The NT terras are erSmos and erlmia, the former being used either as noun or as adjective, with ' place ' or ' country ' understood. Generally the noun is tr. ' wilder-ness,' the adjective 'desert' in the English versions.

On deserts named in NT see artt. on respective names.

W. F. Boyd.

WILD OLIVE.— See Grafting, Olive.

WILD OX.— See Unicorn.

WILL. — 'Will' and 'would' are often Independent verbs in AV, and being now merely auxiliaries, their force is liable to be missed by the English reader. Thus Mt 11" 'if ye will receive it' (EV 'if ye are willing to receive it'); Jn 1" 'Jesus would go forth into Galilee' (RV 'was minded to go forth').

WILL. — See Paul, p. 692»; Testament.

WILLOW ('firSMm, Lv 23", Job 40», Ps 137=, Is 15' 44* [cf. Arab, gharab 'willow' or 'poplar']; tsaph-tsaphah, Ezk 17' [cf. Arab, safsaf 'the willow']). — Most of the references are to a tree growing beside water, and apply well to the willow, of which two varieties, Salix fragilis and S. alba, occur plentifully by watercourses in the Holy Land. Some travellers consider the poplar, especially the willow-like Populus euphratica, of the same Nat. Ord. (.Saiicacew) as the willows, more probable. Tristram, without much evidence, considered that tsaphtsB.phah might be the oleander, which covers the banks of so many streams. E. W. G. Mabterman.

WIMPLE.— Only Is 3" AV; RV shawls. The precise article of dress intended is unknown.

WHTD. — The winds in Heb. are designated by the four cardinal points of the compass. 'South wind,' e.g., may be either S., S.W., or S.E.; and so with the others. Cool winds come from the N., moist winds from the western sea, warm winds from the S., and dry winds, often laden with fine sand, from the eastern deserts. Warmth and moisture, therefore, depend much upon the direction of the winds. During the dry season, from May till October, the prevailing winds are from the N. and N.W.; they do much to temper the heat of summer (Ca 4", Job 37»). In Sept. and Oct., E. and S.E. winds are frequent; blowing from the deserts, their dry heat causes the furniture to crack, and makes life a burden (Hos 13"). Later, the winds from the S. prolong the warmth of summer (Lk 12"); then the W. and S.W. winds bring the rain (1 K 18", Lk 12"). East winds earlier in the year often work great destruction on vegetation (Ezk 17"'). Under their influence strong plants droop, and flowers quickly wither (Ps 103i6).

Of the greatest value for all living things is the per-petual interchange of land and sea breezes. At sunrise a gentle air stirs from the sea, crosses the plain, and creeps up the mountains. At sunset the cooling air begins to slip down seaward again, while the upper strata move landward from the sea. The moisture thus carried ashore is precipitated in refreshing dew.

The 'tempestuous wind' (Ac 27"), called Euroclydon or Euraquilo (wh. see), was the E.N.E. wind so prev-alent in the eastern Mediterranean, called by sailors to-day 'the Levanter.' W. Ewing.

WINE AND STRONG DRINK

WINDOW.— See House, § 7.

WINE AND STRONG DRINK.— Taken together In this order, the two terms 'wine' and 'strong drink' are continually used by OT writers as an exhaustive classification of the fermented beverages then in use (Lv 10', 1 S 1«, Pr 20', and oft.). The all but universal usage in OT^in NT 'strong drink' is mentioned only Lk I's — is to restrict 'wine' (yayin) to the beverage prepared from the juice of the grape, and to denote by ' strong drink ' (shekar) every other sort of intoxica-ting liquor.

1. Before proceeding to describe the methods by which wine in particular was made in the period covered by the canonical writings, it will be advisable to examine briefly the more frequently used terms for wine and strong drink. This examination may begin with the term shekar, which in virtue of its root-meaning always denotes 'intoxicating drink.' In a former study of this subject ('Wine and Strong Drink' in EBi iv. col. 5309 f.), the present writer has given reasons for believing that among the early Semites a name similar to sKelcSr and the Babylonian shikaru was first given to the fermented juice of the date, and that from signify-ing date-wine the name passed to all other fermented liquors. At a later period, when the ancestors of the Hebrews became acquainted with the vine and its culture, the Indo-Germanic term represented by the Greek oinos (with the digamma, woinos) and the Latin vinum was borrowed, under the form ydyin, to denote the fermented juice of the grape. The older term shek&r then became restricted, as we have seen, to intoxicants other than grape wine.

Another important term, of uncertain etymology, 'on which,' in Driver's words, 'much has been written — not always wisely,' is tlrSsh, in our EV sometimes rendered ' wine, ' sometimes ' new wine,' but in Amer. RV consistently 'new wine.' Strictly speaking, llrBsh is the freshly expressed grape juice, before and during fermentatiour technically known as ' must ' (from Lat. mustum). In this sense it is frequently named as a valued product of the soil with 'fresh oil' (Dt 7" 11" etc.), — that is, the raw, unclarified oil as it flows from the oil-press, to which it exactly corresponds. In some OT passages, however, and notably Hos 4", where tlrSsh is named with yayin and whoredom, as taking away the understanding (RV), it evidently denotes the product of fermentation. Hence it may be said that ilrBsh is applied not only to the ' must ' in the wine-fat (see § 3), but to 'new wine' before it has fully matured and become yayin, or, as Driver suggests in his careful study of the OT occurrences (Joel and Amos, 79 f.), 'to a light kind of wine such as we know, from the classical writers, that the ancients were in the habit of making by checking the fermentation of the grape juice before it had run its full course' (see also the discussion in EBi iv. 5307 f.).

Of the rarer words for ' wine' mention may be made of chemer (Dt 32", and, in a cognate form, Ezr 6', Dn S"), which denotes wine as the result of fermentation, from a root signifying 'to ferment,' and 'asfs, a poetical synonym of tIrSsh, and like it used both of the fresh juice and of the fermented liquor (see Jl 1', Is 492«); in Am 9" it is rendered 'sweet wine,' which suggests the gleukos (EV 'new wine') of Ac 2". Reference may also be made to the poetical expression ' the blood of the grape' (Gn 49", Dt 32") and to the later 'fruit of the vine' (Mt 262' and||) of the Gospels and the Mishna.

2. The Promised Land was pre-eminently a 'land of wine . . . and vineyards' (2 K IS^*), as is attested by the widely scattered remains of the ancient presses. A normal winepress consisted of three parts, two rock- hewn troughs at different levels with a connecting channel between them. The upper trough or press-vat (catft— the 'winefat' of Is 63^ elsewhere generally

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