PAUL THE APOSTLE

Stoic writer. Thus we are surprised to find that the phrase 'to spend and be spent' (2 Co 12'5) is common to St. Paul and Seneca; and this is only one out of many parallels. The connexion, however, is probably not between the two writers directly; nor yet (as has been suggested) through Seneca's brother GaUio, the proconsul of Achaia, who was the last person likely to have been interested in St. Paul's doctrine (Ac 18")-But probably the Apostle, educated partly at Tarsus, a great Stoic centre, imbibed in his youth many Stoic phrases which we find repeated in the Hispano-Latin Seneca, who derived his Stoicism from the East. If so, we notice that St. Paul often assigned quite a new and a much higher meaning to these phrases. In the same way St. John drew on Alexandrian Judaism for the word Logos, but assigned to it a higher sense than it ever had before. The influence of Stoic philosophy on St. Paul may be seen in the speech at Athens (where many Stoics were present), containing as it does a quotation from the Stoic Aratus (Ac 17^'; also found in the Stoic Cleanthes). An example of a striliing word which comes into Christianity from Stoicism is 'conscience.' — We are not here concerned with the coincidences mentioned above between Seneca and the other NT writers; but the explanation in their case is probably similar to that just given.

4. Influence o£ the Soman Empire. — It has already been remarlted (ii. 3) that St. Paul was greatly influenced by his position as a Roman citizen, to which he owed his great plan of evangelization. The same thing may be incidentally seen from the allusions to the law of the Empire in the special form in which it was in force in the particular province to which he was writing. The Greelc law was left in possession by the Romans in those provinces where it had formerly been in force. Accordingly in Gal. 3" the reference is to the form of testamentary disposition known to the Greek (and to the older but obsolete Roman) law, the irrevocable will. In Gal i'^- the adoption of an heir, like the making of a will, is irrevocable, the adopted heir becom-ing necessarily a son, and the terms 'heir' and 'son' becoming interchangeable. In the existing Roman law wills were revocable and heirs could be disinherited; accordingly, writing to Rome (Ro S'™), St. Paul puts the truth of which he had written to the Galatians in a different way. Heirship is now deduced from sonship, whereas in Galatians sonship is deduced from heirship; for at Rome a son must be an heir, but an heir need not be a son (ct. He Q""- which presupposes Roman law and the revocability of a will). — So in Gal 3", 1 Co 4" the ' pedagogue ' or ' tutor ' (not ' schoolmaster ') is a reference to a Greek institution adopted by the Romans; this person was the guardian of the child, often one of the upper slaves, who took him to school. The guardian of the child's property (Gal 4') was a different person. On the whole subject see Ramsay, Galatians, pp. 337-393.

6. Christian teachers. — In Gal. St. Paul insists so much on his Apostleship being Divine, not only in its source but in the channel by which it Is conveyed '(esp. 1'), and on his not having received anything from the Twelve (2'), that at first sight it seems as if he describes himself as having become a fully instructed Christian in a moment, on his conversion. Yet he must have learned much from Christians both before and after that great change. He. was clearly much influenced by Stephen, with whom he had perhaps had arguments (Ac 6'; note 'Cilicia,' Paul's province). After his con-version he must have learned the facts of Christianity from Christian teachers such as Ananias at Damascus, and the prophets and teachers (especially Barnabas) at Antioch (Ac 13'), and no doubt also at Tarsus. Of this instruction there are some traces in the Pauline Epistles; the facts of the Last Supper, though 'received of the Lord' (1 Co 11^), must have come by a human channel; and so the account of the Resurrection appear-

PEACE

ances (1 Co 15'). On the other hand, St. Paul ascribes to direct revelation from God his knowledge of the spiritual meaning of the facts (Gal 1"); his visions are frequently referred to (Ac 9'a- 166'- « 18« 22«b- " 239. u 26isff., 1 Co 9' 15^, 2 Co 12«-, Gal 2', Eph 3>); he was directly 'taught of God.'

In such ways was St. Paul prepared for his work. His education was manifold. Partly the Jew, partly the Greek, partly the Roman citizen, but wholly the Christian, he went forth equipped for his many labours as the Apostle of the Gentiles. A. J. Maclean.

FAULUS, SEEGIUS. — Proconsul of Cyprus at the time of the visit of Paul and Barnabas in the first mis-sionary journey (Ac 14'). The translators of the AV always use the term 'deputy' when speaking of a pro-consul. The provinces of the Roman Empire were divided into two classes, governed respectively by ' propraetors ' and ' proconsuls.' Strabo describes Cyprus as governed by a propraetor, and hence some have im-pugned the accuracy of the author of the Acts; but there is ample evidence to show that it was sometimes under one and sometimes under the other. A coin has been discovered in Cyprus bearing the inscription 'in the time of Paulus, proconsul.' This inscription may probably be dated a.d. 55, when its subject would be the proconsul of Acts. Pliny in his Natural History gives Sergius Paulus as his authority for certain facts, and among these are two specially connected with Cyprus. MoHLEY Stevenson.

PAVEMENT. — See Gabbatha.

PAVILIOIT is formed (through Fr. pamllon) from Lat. papilio, which meant a 'butterfly,' and also (from the resemblance to a butterfly's outspread wings) a 'tent.' 'Pavilion' is the tr. in AV of sok in Ps 27', and of mkkah in 2 S 22i2, 1 K 20i2- 1=, Ps 18" 312» (to which RV adds Job 3&^» and Is 4« for AV 'tabernacle'). sukkah is of frequent occurrence, and is often rendered 'booth' or 'tabernacle,' once 'tent' (2 S 11"). Be-sides these, shaphrur in its single occurrence (Jer 43'°) is tr. 'royal pavilion^ (RVm 'glittering pavilion'). RV has also given ' pavilion ' in Nu 25*, with mg. ' alcove ' for AV 'tent.' It is possible that the Heb. gubbah in this passage is a mistake for chuppah, 'nuptial tent.'

PE. — The seventeenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and as such employed in the 119th Psalm to designate the 17th part, each verse of which begins with this letter.

PEACE. — From Latin pax, through French. — 1. Except in Dn S^' 1121 • a (where RV corrects to 'security'), the OT 'peace' represents uniformly the Heb. shSlSm (Eastern salaam), the fundamental sense of which — always more or less distinctly implied — is welfare (as in Gn 43", Ps 73' etc.); of well-being, in the old turljulent times, peace was the prime condition. The word has the following specific religious uses: (1) it is the common formula of courteous well-wishing, employed both at meeting and at parting (see Gn 43'", 1 S 1", Ps 122"; cf. Mt 10'"); (2) 'peace' constituted the most conspicuous blessing of the Messianic Kingdom of God (wh. see; cf. Ps 72'- ', Is 2' 9»-' H«-», Hag 2', Zee 9'"); and (3) it signified a sound and settled under-standing between J" and His people (Nu 6^*, Ps 29" S58B. 122', Jer 16' etc.) — hence J"'s 'covenant of peace' is lodged with His priests (Nu 25", Mai 2"). In this last and richest use the word approximates to its sub-jective NT signification, implying tranquillity of heart, as in Ps 4' 119'«, Is 48'«- ^.

2. The transition, from OT to NT usage strikingly illustrates the inwardness of Christianity. Out of some 90 NT instances of 'peace' there are not more than 8 or 9 which do not refer to heart-peace. The Greek eirSril in its proper sense signified pea/x strictly, as the opposite of conflict; but it took over, first in the LXX and then in the NT, the broader import of shUlBm, which is

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