SISINNES

they agree, namely, as to the defeat of Sisera and as to the manner of his death. It is clear that two traditions, one concerning Jabin and another concerning Sisera, have been mixed up together; in order to harmonize them Sisera has been made Jabin's captain (see Babak, Deborah, etc.). 2. A family of Nethinim (Ezr 2*' = 1 Es h^ Serar). W. O. E. Oestehley.

SISINNES.— The governor of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia under Darius (1 Es 6'- '• " 7'). In Ezr 5' etc., he is caUed Tattenai (wh. see).

SISMAI.— A Jerahmeelite (1 Ch 2«).

SITH. — 'Sith,' that is 'since,' occurs in Jer 15' and other places; while 'sithence' occurs in 2 Es 10".

SITHRI. — A grandson of Kohath (Ex m).

SITNAH ('strife'). — The name given to a well dug by the herdmeu of Isaac in the region of Gerar (Gn 26"). The site is uncertain. H. L. Willett.

SIVAN.— See Time.

SKIRT.— See Dhess 4 (&).

SKULL, PLACE OF A.— See Golgotha.

SLANDER, TALEBEARING.— Both noun and verb ' slander ' are used of malicious gossip of varying degrees of heinousness. The references are all to the slandering of persons, except Nu 14" AV, where RV has 'an evil report against the land.' The expression 'walking with slanders' (Jer 6^', c£. 9*) is in the original identical with 'going about as a talebearer' (Lv 19", Pr 11" 20"; cf. Ezk 229 in AV and RV). The element of falsehood in the gossip is seen in 2 S 19", where 'slandered' is ssmonymous with 'falsely accused.' 'Of no sin and wickedness are there so many complaints in OT as of slander and false accusation — whereof the Psalms are witness' (Cornill, Jeremia, 89). See, further. Crimes AND Punishments, § 6. A. R. S. Kennedy.

SLAVE, SLAVERY.— The Heb. 'ebhedh, usually tr. ' servant,' has a variety of meanings, between which it is not always easy to distinguish. E.g. in 2 S 9^ ' servant ' —retainer, in v."">= bondman, in v."=a polite expression of self-depreciation (cf. 2 K 4' and 1 K 9^2). In a discussion of Hebrew slavery only those passages will be dealt with in which the word probably has the sense of bondage,

1. Legally the slave was a chattel. In the earliest code (Book of the Covenant [ =BC]) he is called his master's money (Ex 212^). In the Decalogue he is grouped with the cattle (Ex 20"), and so regularly in the patriarchal narratives (Gn 12" etc.). Even those laws which sought to protect the slave witness to his degraded position. In the BO the master is not punished tor inflicting even a fatal flogging upon his slave, unless death follows immediately. If the slave lingers a day or two before dying, the master is given the benefit of the doubt as to the cause of his death, and the loss of the slave is regarded as a sufficient punishment (Ex 212'). The jus talionis was not applicable to the slave as it was to the freeman (cf. 21™- with ™-); and it is the master of the slave, not the slave himself, who is recompensed if the slave is gored by an ox (Ex 21'^). In these last two instances BC follows the Code of Hammurabi [=CH] (§§ 196-199, 252).

In practice the slave as a chattel was often subject to ill usage. He was flogged (Ex 21™, Pr 29i»), and at times heartlessly deserted (1 S SO"^-). Though the master is here an Amorite, the cases of runaway slaves in Israel bear testimony to their sufferings even at the hands of their fellow-countrymen; cf. the experiences of the churl Nabal (1 S 25'°), of the passionate Shimei (1 K 2"), and of Sarah (Gn 16«); the implications as to the frequency of such cases in the law of Dt 23"''- and in later times (Sir 332«-"). The position of the maid-servant was in general the same as that of the man-servant. In the BC it is assumed that the maid-servant is at the same time a concubine (Ex 21™-; cf. Hagar,

864

SLAVE, SLAVERY

Zilpah, and Bilhah in the patriarchal narratives). Even in P the idea of the slave-girl as property is still retained (Lv 19"). Here the punishment for the violation of a slave-girl was almost certainly a fine to be paid to the master, if we may judge from the analogous law in Ex 22'°=Dt 22^=*; i.e. it is an indemnity for injury to property. In practice the maid-servant, though the concubine of the master, is often the special property of the mistress (Gn 16"'- ' 25" 30'), at times having been given to her at marriage (Gn 24" 29"- "). She is subject to field labour (Ru 2"^-) and to the lowest menial labour (1 S 25", figurative, but reflecting actual conditions).

Slaves were recruited (1) principally from war, at least in earliest times. Captives or subject populations were often employed not only as personal attendants, but also as public slaves at the Temple (Jos 9^- ^7 pi a gloss], Neh 7"-^°, and see art. Nethinim) or on public works in the corvee (Jos le'", Jg l^™-, 1 K 9m-22=2 Ch 8'-'), while captive women were especially sought as concubines or wives (Dt 21'"-"). (2) From the slave- trade, of which the Israelites undoubtedly availed them-selves (cf. the implications in Gn a?^' 17'^, Lv 26"). This trade was mainly in the hands of the Phcenicians and Edomites (Am 1=- ', Ezk 27", Jl 3»). (3) From native Israelites who had become enslaved as a punish-ment for theft (Ex 22'-*), whether for other crimes also is not stated; josephus (.Ant. xvi. i. 1) knows of no other. (4) From native Israelites who, through poverty and debt, had been forced to sell themselves (Ex 21^, Am 2« 8«, Dt 15'2, Lv 25", Pr W [7] 22' [7]) or their children (Ex 21', 2 K 4', Neh 5=- «, Is 60', Job 24») into servitude.

Whether the creditor had the right to force the debtor into slavery against his will is not clear. Ex 21^ and 2 K 4' (cf . Mt 18^) rather favour this -view. The reflexive verb in Lv 25"" and in Dt 15'^ where the same verbal form should probably be again translated by the reflexive, not by the passive as in RV, favours voluntary servitude. But possibly the later codes are modifications of the earlier practice. Neh 5^ is ambiguous.

As to the number of slaves we have no adequate data. Gn 14'« cannot be used as evidence. The numbers in the corvBe (1 K 5'^- ") are discrepant, and in any case probably do not refer to slaves proper. The prosperous retainer of Saul has 20 servants (2 S 9'»). The propor-tion of slaves to freemen in Neh 7'™- is 1 to 6. The price of slaves naturally varied. The BC (Ex 21'^) fixes the average price at 30 shekels (about £4). CH in the same law allows but 17 shekels (§ 252, cf. 214). Joseph is sold for 20 shekels (Gn 37^8). In later times the price in Exodus seems to have been maintained (2 Mac 8"; Ant. xii. ii. 3).

2. But while the slave was a chattel, nevertheless certain religious and civil rights and privileges were ac-corded him. In law the slave was regarded as an integral part of the master's household (Ex 20"), and, as such, an adherent of the family cult (cf. the instructive early narratives in Gn 24 and 16). Accordingly the BC (Ex 23'2) and the Decalogue (Ex 20'») guarantee to him the Sabbath rest. Deuteronomy allows him a share in the religious feasts (12'2- 's 16"- "), the humanitarian viewpoint being chiefly emphasized. In P the more primitive idea of the slave as a member of the family, conceived as a religious unit, is still retained and utilized in the mterest of religious exclusiveness. Thus, while the ffSr (sojourner) cannot partake of the Passover unless circumcised, the slave must be circum-cised and so is entitled to partake (Ex 12"; cf. the narrative Gn 17'm-). Again, while the g» in a priest's family, or even the daughter of a priest who has married into a non-priestly family, may not eat of the holy things, the priest's slave is allowed to do so (Lv 22'™-)

As to civU rights: In the BC, murder of the slave as well as of the freeman is punishable with death (Ex 2112 =Lv 24"; the law la inclusive). If death results from flogging, the master- is also punished, conjectur-