VINEGAR

The vine ( VUis vinifera) is supposed to be a native ol the shores or the Caspian, but has been cultivated in Palestine from the earliest times, as is witnessed by the extensive remains of ancient vineyards. The climate is peculiarly suited to the grape, which reaches perfection during the prolonged sunshine and the dewy nights of late summer. Vines specially flourish on the hillsides unsuited for cereals (Jer 31', Am 9"). Viti-culture, which languished for centuries under the Arabs, has recently been revived by the German and Jewish colonies, and millions ol imported vines of choice strain have been planted. As in the case of the olive, the culture of the vine needs a peaceful, settled population, as the plants require several years' care before bearing fruit (Zeph 1"), and constant attention if they are to maintain their excellence; hence to sit under one's 'own vine and fig tree' was a favourite image of peace (1 K 425, Mic i*, Zee S"). In some districts to-day vines are trained over a trellis at the front door, making a cool summer resort. The Israelites found Palestine ready planted with vineyards (Dt 6", Jos 24i3, Neh 9^). The steps taken in making a vineyard are described In detail in Is S. The land must be fenced (cf. Ps SO'^), the stones gathered out, the choicest possible plants obtained. A winepress was cut in the rock, and a watch tower (Is 5^ Mt 21'') was built to guard against intruders. These last included foxes (or jackals) (Ca2'5) and boars (Ps 80"). In such a tower the owner's family will probably pass all the grape season; during the vintage a large proportion of the people are to be found living in the vineyards. Every spring the soil between the vines must be dug or ploughed up and the plants pruned (Lv 25'- ', Is 5*) ; neglect of this leads to rapid deterioration ol the grapes; only the slothful man could permit his vineyard to be overgrown with 'thorns and nettles' and 'the stone wall thereof to be broken down' (Pr 243ii-"). The clusters of grapes are often enormous (cl. Nu 13"). When the vintage is over and the leaves turn sere and yellow, the vineyards have a very desolate look (Is 34^). The failure of the vintage was looked upon as one of God's terrible punish-ments (Ps 78", Jer 8", Hab 3"), and a successful and prolonged vintage as a sign of- blessing (Lv 26'). Of the vast quantities of grapes produced in ancient times a large proportion was, without doubtj converted into dibs (Arab.) or grape honey (cf. Heb.de!)asft = ' honey'), a form of thick, intensely sweet grape juice, which is still made in considerable quantities in Syria, but which must have been much more important in the days when cane sugar was unknown. Many references to ' honey ' prob-ably refer to this product rather than to that of the bee.

IsraeliscomparedtoavineinEzklS. 17, Is5,andPs80. The vine-leaf was a favourite design on Jewish coins. The numerous references to the vine in the NT (e.g. Mt 20'*- 21^- s'* , Jn 15) point to the continued im-portance of viticulture in those days.

Vine of Sodom (Dt 3232). — if the reference is to any particular plant — which is very doubtful — the most probable is the colocynth (CitruUus colocynthis); see GouBD. The apple-sized fruit of the curious 'osher iCaiotropis procera) has been suggested; but though this answers well to the description by Josephus (,BJ IV. viii. 4) of the 'fruits of Sodom' which vanish into ashes, so substantial a tree, with its cork-like bark and large glossy leaves, could in no sense be called a vine. E. W. G. Masterman.

VINEGAR. — The light wine of Bible times, in con-sequence of the primitive methods ol manufacture then in vogue (for which see Wine and Strong Drink), turned sour much more rapidly than modern wines. In this condition it was termed chOmels (lit. 'sour [stuff]'), and was used, mixed with water, as a drink by the peasants <Ru 2"). The Nazirite's vow of ab-stinence included also 'vinegar of wine' and 'vinegar of strong drink,' i.e. of all intoxicating liquor other than grape-wine (Nu 6'). The Jewish chSmeta corre-

VISION

sponded to the Roman posca, the favourite drink of the soldiers, which those charged with our Lord's cruci-fixion offered Him on the cross — EV ' vinegar ' (Jn 19'"-, but not Mt 27*', see RV). A. R. S. Kennedy.

VIOL.— See Music, etc., 4 (1) (6).

VIOLET.— See Colours, 6.

VIPER.— See Serpent.

VIRGIN usually represents (o) Heb. belhtUBh, an un-married maiden. The word is frequently applied to countries, often with the addition of 'daughter,' e.g. Israel (Jer 18", Am 6^), Zion (2 K 19", La 2"), Babylon (Is 471), Egypt (Jer 46"). In Jl 1' it is used of a young widow. Dt 22™- has laws for the protection of virgins; V." insists on the importance of virginity in a bride. (6) In Is 7" a rare word 'almah is used (RVm ' maiden ' ). 'The OT usage is indecisive as to whether it is confined to the unmarried (e.g. Ex 2«, Ca 1' 68; masc. 1 S 17" 2022). The Arab, root means 'to be mature,' and the Aram, does not connote virginity. The word appar-ently means 'one of marriageable age,' and is certainly not the word which would naturally be used if ' virginity' were the point to be emphasized. LXX has panhenos ('virgin'); so Mt 12=; but the complaints of Justin and Irenaeus against the later Jewish tr. neanis ('damsel') are hardly justifiable. A modern view holds that Isaiah was adopting the language of a current mythological tradition, and intended the word to convey the idea of a divine mother (note 'the virgin,' RVm). (c) Rev 14'' uses the word of men, probably metaphorically, implying chastity, not celibacy; cf. 2 Co II2. Ac 21' is probably the germ of the later 'order' of virgins. For 'Virgin- birth' see pp. SSg*", 705". C. W. Emmet.

VIRTUE.— In Mk 5'», Lk 6" 8« the word 'virtue' is used with the antiquated meaning of ' power,' or ' power-ful influence' (Gr. dynamis).

VISION. — 1. In OT. — In its earlier form the vision is closely associated with belief in dreams (wh. see) as the normal vehicle of Divine revelation. The two words are repeatedly used of the same experience, the dream being rather the form, the vision the substance (.e.g. Dn 1" 22' 4', cf. Jl 22»). The common phrase 'visions of the night' embodies the same conception (Dn 2", Job 4", Gn 462; gf. 1 S 3'-", Ac 16'). In the darkness, when the eye is closed (Nu 24'- «) and the natural faculties are suspended by sleep, God speaks to men. A further stage is the belief in an exalted condition of quickened spiritual discernment ('ecstasy' Ac 11' 22", cf. Gn IS" [LXX]), detached from the dream-state and furthered by fasting, prayer, and sell-discipline (Dn I02-', cf. Ac 10'-"). But in the later OT books neither ecstasy nor the objective vision, with its disclosure in cryptic symbolism of future happenings (Daniel), or of the nature and purposes of God (Ezekiel, Zechariah), has a place in the normal line of development of man's conception of the methods of Di-vine revelation. The earlier prophets had already attained to the idea of vision as inspired insight, of revelation as an inward and ethical word of God (Is 1' 2' etc.; cl. 1 S 3', Ps 89"). Their prophetic consciousness is not born of special theophanies, but rather of a resistless sense of constraint upon them to discern and utter the Divine will (Am 7"- ". Is 6', Jer 1«, Ezk 312-"). Ecstasies and visual appearances are the exception (Am 7'-' 8', Is 6, Jer 1"-"). In Is 22'- > ffS' hizzaySn ' valley of vision ' (EV) is possibly a mistake for 98' Hinndm, ' Valley of Hinnom.'

2. In NT. — St. Paul once makes incidental reference to his 'visions' (2 Co 12'), and perhaps confirms the objective character of the revelation to him on the road to Damascus (Gal 1"-", 1 Co 9' 15'). Visions are also recorded in Lk 1. 2, Ac 10. 11. 16; and the term is once applied to the Transfiguration (Mt 17'; Mk. Lk. 'the things which they had seen'). But the NT vision is practically confined to the Apocalyptic imagery of the Book of Revelation. S. W. Green.

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